The histories of the Khazars, Sabbateans-Frankists, and Donmeh are distinct yet sometimes intertwining narratives within the broader tapestry of Jewish and world history. While each group holds a unique place, they may be "one and the same people." Their stories involve different geographical origins, historical periods, and relationships with established Jewish traditions and external societies.
The Khazars were a semi-nomadic Turkic people who established a powerful empire in Eastern Europe (covering parts of modern European Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan) from the 7th to 10th centuries CE. What makes them particularly notable is the conversion of their ruling elite, and possibly a significant portion of their population, to Judaism in the 8th or 9th century. The Khazar Khaganate played a significant role as a buffer state between the Byzantine Empire, the nomadic tribes of the steppes, and the Islamic caliphates. After the decline of their empire in the 10th century, the fate of the Jewish Khazars is debated among historians. The "Khazarian hypothesis" suggests that they contributed to the ethnogenesis of Ashkenazi Jews, who primarily settled in Eastern Europe.
The Sabbateans emerged in the 17th century around the charismatic figure of Sabbatai Zevi (1626–1676), a Sephardic Jewish rabbi and Kabbalist from Smyrna (modern-day Izmir, Turkey). In 1666, Zevi was proclaimed the Messiah by his prophet, Nathan of Gaza, igniting a widespread messianic fervor across Jewish communities in Europe, the Ottoman Empire, and beyond. This movement challenged traditional Jewish law, with some followers believing that in the messianic era, laws could be transgressed to hasten redemption. The movement faced a crisis when Zevi, under threat of execution by the Ottoman Sultan, converted to Islam. This "apostasy" shattered the hopes of many followers, but some continued to believe in him, interpreting his conversion as a necessary, mystical act of "descent into the klippot" (shells of evil) to redeem divine sparks.
The Frankists were a radical offshoot of the Sabbatean movement that arose in the 18th century in Poland, led by Jacob Frank (1726–1791). Frank claimed to be a reincarnation of Sabbatai Zevi and took the antinomian (anti-law) tendencies of Sabbateanism to even greater extremes. Frankist doctrine emphasized the necessity of transgressing all religious and moral boundaries to bring about redemption, including engaging in promiscuous rites and, notoriously, advocating for incest. Like Zevi, Frank also led his followers in a series of conversions – first to Islam, then en masse to Catholicism – while maintaining secret, heterodox beliefs. Frankism eventually dissipated as an organized movement, with its adherents largely assimilating into Christian society.
The Donmeh (Turkish for "convert" or "turncoat") were a group of Sabbatean crypto-Jews in the Ottoman Empire who outwardly converted to Islam following Sabbatai Zevi's conversion, but secretly continued to practice a syncretic form of Sabbatean Judaism and Kabbalah. Centered primarily in Salonica (modern-day Thessaloniki), the Donmeh maintained their distinct communal identity for centuries, observing a blend of Jewish and Muslim traditions in secret. Their dual identity made them a target of suspicion from both mainstream Jews and Muslims. Many Donmeh families eventually assimilated entirely into Turkish society, particularly after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923, which relocated them to Istanbul.
These three groups are related, but somewhat distinct:
- Khazars: An ancient Turkic people whose ruling class converted to Judaism, existing centuries before the Sabbatean movement. Their connection to modern Jewry is a subject of historical and genetic debate.
- Sabbateans-Frankists: Messianic movements within Judaism (17th and 18th centuries, respectively) that emerged in response to Sabbatai Zevi's claims. Frankism was a more radical and later offshoot of Sabbateanism.
- Donmeh: A specific group of Sabbateans who followed Zevi's example by outwardly converting to Islam but secretly maintained their Sabbatean beliefs and practices.
While the Frankists were a radical branch of Sabbateanism, and the Donmeh were a specific community of Sabbatean crypto-converts, there may be some historical or genealogical link to the Khazars. There are assertions stating that they are "one and the same people". Each represents a unique chapter in the complex and diverse history of Jewish identity and its interactions with the wider world.